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Navigating the Legal Landscape: A Guide to Criminal Law in the UK and Ireland

April 16, 2023 /

When it comes to navigating the legal landscape, understanding criminal law is essential. Whether you find yourself facing criminal charges or simply want to educate yourself on the subject, having a guide to criminal law in the UK and Ireland can be invaluable. In this blog post, we will explore the key aspects of criminal law in these regions, providing you with the knowledge you need to navigate the legal system.

The Basics of Criminal Law

Before delving into the specifics, it’s important to have a solid understanding of what criminal law entails. Criminal law is a branch of law that deals with offenses committed against the public, society, or the state. It encompasses a wide range of crimes, from minor offenses such as theft to more serious offenses like murder.

One of the fundamental principles of criminal law is that a person is innocent until proven guilty. This means that the burden of proof lies with the prosecution, who must provide evidence beyond a reasonable doubt to secure a conviction. It is also worth noting that criminal law differs from civil law, which deals with disputes between individuals or organizations.

The Legal System in the UK and Ireland

The legal systems in the UK and Ireland share many similarities, but there are also some key differences. In the UK, criminal law is primarily governed by statutes, with the most significant piece of legislation being the Theft Act 1968. This act defines various offenses related to theft, robbery, and burglary.

In Ireland, criminal law is mainly derived from common law principles, which are based on court decisions rather than statutes. The Irish legal system also incorporates legislation passed by the Oireachtas, the national parliament of Ireland.

Key Criminal Offenses

Now let’s explore some of the key criminal offenses that you may come across in the UK and Ireland.

1. Theft

Theft is a common offense that involves taking someone else’s property without their consent. It can range from petty theft, such as shoplifting, to more serious offenses like burglary. The penalties for theft vary depending on the value of the stolen property and the circumstances surrounding the offense.

2. Assault

Assault refers to intentionally causing apprehension of immediate unlawful violence. It can be physical, such as punching or kicking someone, or verbal, such as making threats. The severity of the offense and the resulting penalties depend on the level of harm caused and the intent behind the assault.

3. Drug Offenses

Drug offenses encompass a wide range of offenses related to the possession, production, and distribution of illegal drugs. The penalties for drug offenses can be severe, with imprisonment being a common punishment. It’s worth noting that the classification of drugs and their associated penalties may vary between the UK and Ireland.

4. Fraud

Fraud involves deceiving someone for personal gain or causing them to suffer a loss. It can take various forms, including identity theft, credit card fraud, and insurance fraud. The penalties for fraud depend on the severity of the offense and the amount of money involved.

Seeking Legal Assistance

If you find yourself facing criminal charges or require legal advice related to criminal law, it is crucial to seek professional legal assistance. A qualified criminal defense lawyer can guide you through the legal process, protect your rights, and provide you with the best possible defense.

At our comprehensive legal services website, we specialize in various areas of law, including criminal law. Our team of experienced lawyers is well-versed in the intricacies of the UK and Irish legal systems, ensuring that you receive the highest quality representation.

If you would like to learn more about criminal law in the UK and Ireland, we recommend visiting our Criminal Law Guide in the UK and Ireland. This resource provides in-depth information on various aspects of criminal law, helping you navigate the legal landscape with confidence.

Remember, understanding criminal law is essential for anyone living in the UK and Ireland. By familiarizing yourself with the key offenses and seeking professional legal assistance when needed, you can protect your rights and ensure a fair legal process.

Understanding the Basics: How Family Law Protects Your Rights and Interests

April 4, 2023 /

Family law is a complex area of legal practice that deals with various issues related to family relationships, including marriage, divorce, child custody, and adoption. It plays a crucial role in protecting the rights and interests of individuals and families in the UK. Understanding the basics of family law is essential for anyone who may need legal assistance in matters related to their family. In this blog post, we will explore the fundamental aspects of family law and how it can protect your rights and interests.

Marriage and Divorce

Marriage is a legally recognized union between two individuals, and family law governs the legal rights and obligations that arise from this union. It establishes the legal framework for marriage, including the requirements for a valid marriage, the rights and responsibilities of spouses, and the grounds for divorce.

When a marriage breaks down irretrievably, divorce becomes a necessary step to legally end the marriage. Family law provides guidance on the process of divorce, including the grounds for divorce, division of assets and liabilities, child custody arrangements, and spousal support.

Child Custody and Support

Child custody is a significant aspect of family law that determines the legal rights and responsibilities of parents regarding the care and upbringing of their children. When parents separate or divorce, family law courts prioritize the best interests of the child in making custody decisions.

Family law also addresses child support, which is the financial assistance provided by one parent to the other for the benefit of the child. The amount of child support is determined based on various factors, including the income of both parents and the needs of the child.

Adoption and Surrogacy

Family law in the UK also governs the process of adoption and surrogacy. Adoption allows individuals or couples to legally become the parents of a child who is not biologically related to them. It involves a thorough assessment process to ensure the suitability of the adoptive parents and the best interests of the child.

Surrogacy, on the other hand, involves a woman carrying a child on behalf of another individual or couple. Family law provides the legal framework for surrogacy arrangements, including the rights and responsibilities of the parties involved and the legal recognition of the intended parents.

Domestic Violence and Protection Orders

Family law plays a crucial role in protecting individuals and families from domestic violence. It provides legal remedies for victims of domestic abuse, including the issuance of protection orders. These orders aim to prevent further harm and ensure the safety and well-being of the victims and their children.

Protection orders can include provisions such as restraining orders, prohibiting the abuser from contacting or approaching the victim, and granting exclusive occupation of the family home to the victim. Family law courts take domestic violence cases seriously and prioritize the safety of the victims.

How Family Law Protects Your Rights and Interests

Family law is designed to protect the rights and interests of individuals and families in various legal matters. It provides a legal framework for resolving disputes, ensuring fair outcomes, and safeguarding the well-being of all parties involved.

By seeking legal assistance from a knowledgeable family law solicitor, you can navigate through complex legal processes with confidence. A skilled solicitor can provide expert advice, guide you through negotiations or court proceedings, and advocate for your rights and interests.

Whether you are going through a divorce, seeking child custody, or dealing with any other family-related legal matter, understanding the basics of family law is crucial. It empowers you to make informed decisions and protects your rights throughout the legal process.

If you want to learn more about family law and its basics, you can refer to the Family Law Basics Guide provided by HALT.org. It offers comprehensive information and resources to help you navigate the complexities of family law in the UK.

In conclusion, family law plays a vital role in protecting the rights and interests of individuals and families in the UK. It covers various aspects of family relationships, including marriage, divorce, child custody, adoption, and domestic violence. By understanding the basics of family law and seeking legal assistance when needed, you can ensure that your rights are protected and your interests are safeguarded.

Where do NFTs go next?

March 28, 2022 /

In 2021, Collins Dictionary declared NFT its word of the year, recognizing it as the year that saw the viral photo behind the 2005 Disaster Girl meme sell for over £350,000. NFT is a term used to describe a non-fungible token, but what exactly are NFTs, and how well-equipped is the UK legal framework to deal with their complexity and growing popularity?

What exactly is an NFT?

A crypto asset is an NFT. Cryptocurrencies are digital representations of value or rights (just as a banknote is a paper representation of money).

A cryptocurrency is a token that conveys value, such as bitcoin, which can be sold for fiat currency or exchanged for goods or services. It’s also fungible, in the sense that it’s not unique – one bitcoin may be substituted with another.

A non-fungible token is a digital description of unique rights. When a collector purchases an NFT that is a digital work of art, they are buying the ownership rights to the artwork to which the NFT relates. Their rights are recorded on the blockchain using distributed ledger technology (see our guide for more information). This is made possible by the use of NFTs in tracking the origin of digital content, such as music or videos, although the technology may also be used to track real assets.

It might be tough to make sense of technical jargon and, as is the case with all things crypto, a more tangible example can be beneficial. The Land Register in the United Kingdom keeps track of land ownership and any rights connected with it. It’s conceivable to produce NFTs that represent real estate in theory. A smart contract would be created as a certificate of ownership for a given piece of property by minting an NFT representing ownership of the land. The owner of the NFT gives it to someone who will become the property’s owner and has their ownership recorded on the blockchain rather than the Land Register. It’s possible that in the future, smart contracts may be used to create land-related NFTs that mimic aspects of the existing real estate transaction process.

An NFT, as it is one-of-a-kind and stored on the blockchain, allows the owner to demonstrate ownership of their property in a secure and safe manner. It isn’t without risk, though. While the NFT will be permanently stored on the blockchain, the entity for which it provides proof of ownership might be deleted (if it is digital and exists elsewhere on the net), burn down (if it is property), In the event of a security breach, funds in their native currency may be lost. Purchasers of NFTs must also understand what they are purchasing. While the buyer of an NFT has rights to the piece of technology that supports it, this does not always include the copyright or intellectual property rights pertaining to the underlying asset (which can frequently stay with the creator). Owners of NFTs have the option to receive royalties every time an NFT is sold from person to person by adding the creator’s address as part of the NFT’s metadata.

Find out more about where NFTs go next

How are NFTs taxed?

Bitcoins and other cryptocurrencies can be bought and sold, as can NFTs. However, in the UK tax consequences of doing so, the UK is not alone in lacking specific legislation and, as yet, only limited practical advice to assist taxpayers.

NFTs are expected to be taxed in the same way as other cryptoassets such as digital currency, although HMRC has not ruled on this. If this assumption is correct, taxation would be determined by what is done with the NFTs. If a person receives an NFT in return for providing a service, this NFT would most likely be regarded as taxable income earned from the activity. A business that transacts in NFTs and trades them for cash is considered to be receiving taxable trading profits (and taxed accordingly). Income tax is also levied on the trade profit from selling an NFT produced by a professional artist.

When an NFT is sold from one person to another, it may be required to pay royalties to its creators. Although this is still an emerging area, it’s likely that such payments will be taxed in accordance with the usual rules for royalties (i.e., if they don’t qualify as trading income according to other rules).

Gains from the sale of NFTs will be subject to capital gains tax if income tax does not apply. HMRC’s recently updated crypto-assets manual is expressly dedicated to NFTs. “Non-Fungible Tokens…are separately identifiable and so are not pooled,” according to the IRS (meaning they should be valued as individual assets for capital gains tax purposes). The calculation of a capital gain or loss on the sale of an NFT is presumably straightforward: simply compare the proceeds received on disposal to the cost incurred in obtaining it.

Where are NFTs situated?

One of the most difficult challenges surrounding all cryptocurrency assets, including NFTs, is their position or “situs.”

In the United Kingdom, it is a safe bet to assume that an NFT will be a taxable asset for inheritance and capital gains tax purposes. At present, HMRC’s guidance focuses more on “exchange tokens” such as bitcoin, but NFTs are not specifically defined as a distinct class. However, HMRC’s statement suggests that the site of NFTs for capital gains tax purposes will be determined according to the asset to which they give ownership.

That would imply that the NFT would be located where the asset is physical, as opposed to where ownership of a non-digital asset (such as land in our example above) is assigned.

However, when there is no underlying asset (which may be the case if the NFT is a right to services, for example) or the underlying asset itself is digital, as digital art, things get a lot more complicated. If that’s the case, we expect HMRC to consider the NFT to be situated in the United Kingdom where the beneficial owner is a tax resident.

This would conform to HMRC’s current policy on cryptocurrencies, such as bitcoin, and would not be without dispute. There is no clear legal basis for cryptoassets being located where their owner is domiciled, and it contradicts two judgments by the courts that the location of a cryptoasset is where the owner is domiciled. (see Fetch.ai Ltd v Persons Unknown [2021] EWHC 2254 and the unreported 2020 case of Ion Science v Persons Unknown). The Society of Trust and Estate Practitioners has also issued a guidance note, which states that the location of cryptoassets is not just vital for UK tax purposes, but it’s also essential for succession and foundation.

This is a question that will be answered over time. HMRC’s position on this contentious issue may change as the court case progresses. The issue will undoubtedly be discussed in court, and further advice will follow. Meanwhile, UK non-resident non-UK domiciliaries should seek specialist advice on their possible tax exposure as a result of their ownership of NFTs and other cryptocurrencies.

What happens to your NFTs when you die?

One that we will compose, but this section provides a quick overview of the law and practice surrounding how cryptoassets are handled when their owner passes away.

NFTs can be included in the estate of a person who died intestate and are inherited by the persons named in their will or intestacy rules. NFT property is clearly property.

The problems that arise are mostly practical in nature. The first question is how the executors or heirs of a person who owned an NFT will know about it. There is no single database of NFTs, so it’s reasonable to expect the owner will have to inform at least one person who could be trusted to outlive them about their NFTs and where they are.

The second problem that is likely to be encountered is how do executors or heirs get access to an NFT so that they can sell it or pass it on to the person to whom it has been bequeathed.

NFTs are generally kept in wallets connected to the internet (i.e. hot) or offline (cold – usually hardware-based), just like other cryptoassets. A password will always be required to access the wallet, therefore the NFT, so whatever wallet is used. To access the NFT, executors or heirs must be informed of the password, or how to get there. This entails security risks that may be reduced.

In a nutshell, owners of NFTs must take great care in their lifetime to make sure that they are accessible and can be passed on to designated beneficiaries when the time comes.

After Covid – It’s Time To Check Your Contracts

March 22, 2022 /

The coronavirus outbreak has undoubtedly had a widespread impact on businesses worldwide. From closures to unemployment, the ramifications of the virus have been frightening. However, by taking the time to check your contracts, you may find that there are options to help you safeguard your business and mitigate losses.

What is the ‘force majeure’ clause?

According to crestlegal.com:

A force majeure clause sets out the rules which applies, if an event outside the control of the parties to a contract, stops a contract being carried out

This clause essentially details the rules for when an event occurs that is outside of the control of the involved parties. In such a case, the contracted parties will normally no longer be legally obligated to fulfil their obligations set out in the contract. If a substantial period of time elapses under such conditions, the parties may also be able to end the contract early.

By detailing what will occur when such an event takes place, the force majeure clause provides the parties involved a degree of assurance. 

Coronavirus and the force majeure clause

It is important to understand the language used in the force majeure clause. According to Venable, restrictive language (for example it is “impossible” to conduct business) may mean that the clause does not apply in a situation where you may think it would. If a party can prove that they can still conduct business, albeit in a limited fashion, then the contract needs can still be met.

With this in mind, you should take the following into account.

Does the coronavirus event fall under the force majeure clause?

It is worth checking what is specified in your contract’s force majeure clause. If events such as an epidemic or pandemic are listed, then you will be covered under the clause. If not, you are not completely out of luck. Government conditions, such as restricting travel to work, may be included in the clause.

Moreover, the umbrella term of an ‘event beyond the reasonable control of the parties may be used. Under such circumstances, the force majeure clause likely applies.

The outcome of the force majeure clause being triggered

As mentioned previously, the conditions which may cause the force majeure clause to be triggered are dependent on the wording of the contract. If force majeure is brought about, you will want to investigate the resulting financial implications.

If one party wants to use force majeure, the other party will want to take steps to mitigate financial losses. Therefore it is vitally important to precisely follow the procedure of force majeure, ending the contract for example, to avoid miscommunication.

So what now?

The best place to start is by reviewing your contracts, checking to see if your business can still perform its contractual obligations. If this is not possible, then you will be able to put a plan in place to reduce the financial implications of the virus.

Once you understand your position, it’s important to consider the following.

Think about your insurance cover

Your insurance policy may cover events that fall under force majeure. In light of this, it is worth reviewing your policy to see if you may be able to receive compensation to cover your losses. Always make sure to comply with the time-frame requirements of your policy.

Consider your customers and suppliers

Under these strenuous circumstances, a pragmatic approach to business relations with your customers and suppliers is appropriate. Whilst it may be suitable for you to apply the force majeure clause, you must also consider the long-term implications of this decision. 

It is advantageous to examine whether you are able to form a compromise, without completely severing ties. 

And finally…

With the outbreak of coronavirus, it is more important than ever to check your contracts and see how they cover such events. Consider whether applying force majeure, if possible, will benefit you in the long term, or whether it is possible to reach a contractual compromise. We wish you the best in your business endeavours.

How are Russian sanctions affecting businesses?

March 9, 2022 /

The UK is “inflicting devastating economic pain on Putin and Russia” as a result of its unprovoked and illegal invasion of Ukraine, according to Foreign Secretary, Liz Truss.

The UK’s Russia sanctions are detailed in the Russia (Sanctions) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019 (the Regulations) as amended, most recently on 8 March. The Regulations were established to allow the EU’s sanctions on Russia (implemented following the 2014 Crimean Peninsula annexation) to be applied after Brexit. Since their introduction, the Regulations have been significantly broadened. The Regulations include a number of restrictions and requirements, including (but not limited):

  • The Russian Federation’s state-owned and key strategic private firms are prohibited from raising capital on the UK financial market.
  • The assets (including cash and non-financial assets such as property and cars) of particular Russian nationals in the United Kingdom must be frozen.
  • The UK Border Agency has turned down numerous requests from Russian citizens to enter or remain in the country.
  • Russian ships are prohibited from entering ports in the United Kingdom and may be held for inspection.
  • Russian aircraft are not permitted to fly into or land in the United Kingdom.
  • It is also illegal to import, export, supply, make available, or deliver military goods, dual-use goods and technology, aviation and space products and technology, critical industry products and technology (cover of specific items in industries including electronics, computers, information security, telecommunications, sensors and lasers, navigation and avionics), as well as energy-related products.
  • Additionally, the supply of infrastructure-related products or services to Crimea is prohibited.

Given the strained economic situation in Ukraine, we believe that additional sanctions will be imposed as events in Ukraine develop and that the Regulations will continue to be revised on a regular basis.

Who are they aimed at?

The Regulations contain a number of restrictions and obligations that apply to all UK incorporated firms, wherever they conduct business (including branches of UK businesses operating outside the country).

What are the consequences of not following the rules?

The Regulations provide that it is a criminal offense to violate (or to enable or facilitate a contravention of, or to circumvent) any of the proscriptions in the Regulations. Breaches result in up to ten years’ imprisonment or a fine (or both) if they are intentional.

What businesses must do in order to remain competitive – the effects of your contract agreements

It is critical that firms stay in compliance with the Russian sanctions to prevent serious penalties. With continuous monitoring of the extent of the sanctions, businesses should be sure their actions are compliant. The Department for International Trade advises reading its guidance on Russia sanctions (Russia Sanctions: Guidance – GOV.UK (www.gov.uk)) to see how.

To assess the impact of the sanctions, you’ll need to audit your current business relationships. You’ll need to consider:

  • Whether you’re doing business with a legitimate individual (or any companies they control or own)
  • Whether you’re selling goods in a restricted market or to a restricted region
  • Staff at the law firm advised that it was critical to establish a good legal foundation for any issues that arise, since they may lead to complicated corporate matters.
  • If a company fails to comply with an order but believes that the sanctions do not prevent it from doing so (including payment obligations).

You may need to decide if the penalties are sufficient compensation for missed obligations and whether the contract contains a force majeure clause that is broad enough to justify performance (and, if so, on what terms) or any other relevant termination provisions.

If you’re signing new contracts that may be affected by sanctions, make sure the agreement has adequate protections in place if those sanctions are actually implemented. In particular, it would be critical that you include pertinent payment and termination provisions as well as that the law and location of jurisdiction are outside of Russia.

How we can assist you

If you have any queries relating to how the sanctions will impact your commercial contracts, please do not hesitate to contact us.

We can assess the repercussions of the sanctions on existing contracts. We can also assist with and draft suitable language for future contracts.

Is a cohabitation- agreement a “must do”?

February 28, 2022 /

If you’re moving in together and want to be sure your legal rights are safeguarded, consider getting a cohabitation agreement. This is a document that details how you will split your money and property if the relationship concludes.

It’s vital to note that cohabitation agreements are not completely enforceable in court, so they cannot be used as legal evidence. They may, nevertheless, be presented as proof in any future lawsuits.

There are several things to consider while drafting a cohabitation agreement, such as:

  • What are your plans for sharing expenses and other charges?
  • Who will have the rights to what property (such as a family home)?
  • How will you handle any joint debts if they arise?
  • What will happen if one of you decides to terminate the relationship?

If you and your partner are willing to put everything in writing, a cohabitation agreement might be an excellent method to avoid future problems. If you have any queries, it is always a good idea to consult with a lawyer before signing anything.

A cohabitation agreement may be used to safeguard both parties if the relationship comes to an end, but they are not legally enforceable in court. This implies that if one or both of you want the relationship to terminate, the agreement cannot be enforced.

A cohabitation agreement, on the other hand, can be used as evidence in any future court case, so it may be a wonderful method to avoid future issues. If you and your spouse are amenable to putting everything down in writing, a cohabitation agreement might help you avoid any conflicts.

If you’re considering entering into a cohabitation agreement, talk to a lawyer before signing anything. They can give you legal counsel and make sure the arrangement is acceptable for both parties.